Differences between the two theories

KOHLBERG	GILLIGAN
I.      Ethics of rules and rights	Ethics of care
II. Studies based on well educated,   white male’s only, tending male bias.	Studies included females and colored peoples
III. Application of abstract rules ranked in the order of importance	Application of context-oriented reasoning.
IV. Studies were hypothesized for both the genders even though the study was conducted mostly on males	Study was conducted on both genders and it was found, men based their reasoning on ‘justice’ and women based theirs on ‘care’

CONSENSUS & CONTROVERSY

CONSENSUS:

The conductor of a music orchestra has authority over the musicians and his authority is respected by them by consensus as otherwise the music performance will suffer. Hence the authority and autonomy are compatible.

On the other hand, tension arises between the needs for autonomy and the need for concerns about authority. The difference between the two should be discussed openly to resolve the issue to the common good. 

CONTROVERSY:

•     All individuals will not arrive at same verdict during their exercising their moral autonomy.     

•       Aristotle noted long ago that morality is not as precise and clear-cut as arithmetic.   

•  Aim of teaching engineering ethics is not to get unanimous conformity of outlook by indoctrination, authoritarian and dogmatic teaching, hypnotism or any other technique but to improve promotion of tolerance in the exercise of moral autonomy.

MODELS OF PROFESSIONAL ROLES

Promotion of public good is the primary concern of the professional engineers. There are several role models to whom the engineers are attracted. These models provoke their thinking, attitudes and actions.

1. Savior:

The engineer as a savior, save the society from poverty, illiteracy, wastage, inefficiency, ill health, human (labour) dignity and lead it to prosperity, through technological development and social planning. For example, R.L. Stevenson.

2.  Guardian:

He guards the interests of the poor and general public. As one who is conversant with technology development, is given the authority befitting his expertise to determine what is best suited to the society. For example, Lawrence of Arabia (an engineer).

3.  Bureaucratic Servant:

He serves the organization and the employers. The management of an enterprise fixes its goals and assigns the job of problem solving to the engineer, who accepts the challenge and shapes them into concrete achievements. For example, Jamshedji Tata.

4.  Social Servant:

It is one who exhibits social responsibility. The engineer translates the interest and aspirations of the society into a reality, remembering that his true master is the society at large. For example, Sir M.Viswesvarayya.

5.  Social Enabler and Catalyst:

One who changes the society through technology. The engineer must assist the management and the society to understand their needs and make informed decisions on the desirable technological development and minimize the negative effects of technology on people and their living environment. Thus, he shines as a social enabler and a catalyst for further growth. For example, Sri Sundarlal Bahuguna.

6.  Game Player:

He is neither a servant nor master. An engineer is an assertive player, not a passive player who may carry out his master’s voice. He plays a unique role successfully within the organization, enjoying the excitement of the profession and having the satisfaction of surging ahead in a competitive world. For example, Narayanamurthy, Infosys and Dr. Kasthurirangan, ISRO.

THEORIES ABOUT RIGHT ACTION

Several ethical theories have been developed over different times, each of them stressing certain ethical principles or features.  Each stresses a view and many a times, we find that these theories converge and reinforce the ethics, in deciding upon the actions and justifying the results.

Utilitarian Theory

The term Utilitarianism was conceived in the 19th century by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill to help legislators determine which laws were morally best. They suggested that the standard of right conduct is maximization of good consequences. Good consequences mean either ‘utilities’ or the ‘balance of good over evil’. This approach weighs the costs and benefits. Right actions are the ones that produce the greatest satisfaction of the preferences of the affected persons. In analysing an issue in this approach, we have to:

(a) Identify the various courses of action available to us.

(b) Ask who will be affected by each action and what benefits or harms will be derived from each.

(c) Choose the action that will produce the greatest benefits and the least harm. The ethical action is the one that provides the greatest good for the greatest number. The act utilitarian theory proposed by J.S. Mill (1806-73) focuses on actions, rather than on general rules.  An action is right, if it generates the most overall good for the most people involved. The rule utilitarian theory, developed by Richard Brandt (1910-97), stressed on the rules, such as ‘do not steal’, ‘do no harm others’, ‘do not bribe’, as of primary importance. He suggested that individual actions are right when they are required by set of rules which maximizes the public good. The act utilitarian theory permitted a few immoral actions. Hence, there was need to develop rule utilitarian theory to establish morality and justice, in the transactions. For example, stealing an old computer from the employer will benefit the employee more than the loss to the employer. As per Act, utilitarian this action is right. But rule utilitarian observes this as wrong, because the employee should act as ‘faithful agent or trustee of the employees’.  In another example, some undisciplined engineers are terminated with the blame for the mistakes they have not committed. The process is unfair although this results in promotion of overall good.

Duty Ethics Theory

A. The duty ethics theory, proposed by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) states, that actions are consequences of performance of one’s duties such as, ‘being honest’, ‘not cause suffering of others’, ‘being fair to others including the meek and week’, ‘being grateful’, ‘keeping promises’ etc. The stress is on the universal principle of respect for autonomy i.e., respect and rationality of persons. As per Kant we have duties to ourselves, as we are rational and autonomous beings. We have a duty not to commit suicide; a duty to develop our talents and a duty to avoid harmful drugs. Kant insisted that moral duties are categorical imperatives. They are commands that we impose on ourselves as well as other rational beings. For example, we should be honest because honesty is required by duty. A businessman is to be honest because honesty pays — in terms of profits from customers and from avoiding jail for dishonesty.

B. On the other hand, the Duty ethics theory, as enunciated by John Rawl, gave importance to the actions that would be voluntarily agreed upon by all persons concerned, assuming impartiality. His view emphasized the autonomy each person exercises in forming agreements

with other rational people. Rawl proposed two basic moral principles;

(1) Each person is entitled to the most extensive amount of liberty compatible with an equal amount for others, and

(2) Differences in social power and economic benefits are justified only when they are likely to benefit everyone, including members of the most disadvantaged groups. The first principle is of prime importance and should be satisfied first. Without basic liberties other economic or social benefits cannot be sustained for long. The second principle insists that to allow some people with great wealth and power is justified only when all other groups are benefited.  In the business scenario, for example, the free enterprise is permissible so far it provides the capital needed to invest and prosper, thereby making job opportunities to the public and taxes to fund the government spending on the welfare schemes on the poor people.

C.W.D. Ross, the British philosopher introduced the term prima facie duties, which means duties might have justified exceptions. In fact, most duties are prima facie ones; some may have obligatory or permissible exceptions. Ross assumed that the prima facie duties are intuitively obvious (self-evident), while fixing priorities among duties. He noted that the principles such as ‘Do not kill’ and ‘protect innocent life’ involve high respect for persons than other principles such as, ‘Do not lie’ (less harmful). This theory is criticized on the fact, that the intuitions do not provide sufficient guideline for moral duty. He has listed various aspects of Duty Ethics that reflect our moral convictions, namely:

1. Fidelity: duty to keep promises.

2. Reparation: duty to compensate others when we harm them.

3. Gratitude: duty to thank those who help us.

4. Justice: duty to recognize merit.

5. Beneficence: duty to recognize inequality and improve the condition of others.

6. Self-improvement: duty to improve virtue and intelligence.

7. Non-malfeasance: duty not to injure others.

Rights Theory

Rights are entitlement to act or to have another individual act in a certain way. Minimally, rights serve as a protective barrier, shielding individuals from unjustified infringement of their moral agency by others. For every right, we have a corresponding duty of non-interference.

A.  The Rights approach to ethics has its roots in the 18th century philosopher Immanuel Kant, who focused on the individual’s right to choose for oneself.  According him, what makes human beings different from mere things is, that people have dignity based on their ability to choose freely what they will do with their lives, and they have a fundamental moral right to have these choices respected. People are not objects to be manipulated; it is a violation of human dignity to use people in ways they do not freely choose. Other rights he advocated are:

1.The right to access the truth: We have a right to be told the truth and to be informed about matters that significantly affect our choices.

2. The right of privacy: We have the right to do, believe, and say whatever we choose in our personal lives so long as we do not violate the rights of others.

3. The right not to be injured: We have the right not to be harmed or injured unless we freely and knowingly do something to deserve punishment or we freely and knowingly choose to risk such injuries.

4. The right to what is agreed: We have a right to what has been promised by those with whom we have freely entered into a contract or agreement.

B. In deciding whether an action is moral or immoral, we must ask, does the action respect the moral rights of everyone? Actions are wrong to the extent that they violate the rights of individuals; the more serious is the violation, the more wrongful is the action.

The rights theory as promoted by John Locke states that the actions are right, if they respect human rights of every one affected.  He proposed the three basic human rights, namely life, liberty, and property. His views were reflected in the modern American society, when Jefferson declared the basic rights as life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness.

C. As per A.I. Melden’s theory based on rights, nature mandates that we should not harm others’ life, health, liberty or property.  Melden allowed welfare rights also for living a decent human life.  He highlighted that the rights should be based on the social welfare system.

D. Human rights: Human rights are explained in two forms, namely liberty rights and welfare rights. Liberty rights are rights to exercise one’s liberty and stresses duties on other people not to interfere with one’s freedom. The four features of liberty rights (also called moral rights), which lay the base for Government Administration, are:

1. Rights are natural in so far as they are not invented or created by government.

2. They are universal, as they do not change from country to country.

3. They are equal since the rights are the same for all people, irrespective of caste, race, creed or sex.

4. They are inalienable i.e., one cannot hand over his rights to another person such as selling oneself to slavery. The Welfare Rights are the rights to benefit the needy for a decent human life, when one cannot earn those benefits and when those benefits are available in the society.                         

E. Economic rights: In the free-market economy, the very purpose of the existence of the manufacturer, the sellers and the service providers is to serve the consumer. The consumer is eligible to exercise some rights. The consumers’ six basic rights are: Right to Information, Right to Safety, and Right to Choice, Right to be Heard, Right to Redressal and Right to Consumer Education. A few rights are absolute, i.e., unlimited and have no justifiable exceptions.

For example, rights ethicists view that the rights have not been violated if the people purchase a (technological product) hang glider and they get injured by flying them carelessly or under bad weather conditions. But human rights imply that one not to be poisoned or killed by technological products, whose dangers are not obvious or wantonly hidden. They imply a right to be informed, when the purchase was made, of the possible dangers during use or service (obtaining informed consent).

Rights ethics is distinctive in that it makes human rights the ultimate appeal — the moral bottom line. Human rights constitute a moral authority to make legitimate moral demands on others to respect our choices, recognizing that others can make similar claims on us. Thus, we see that the rights ethics provides a powerful foundation for the special ethical requirements in engineering and other professions.

UNIT-2

VARIETY OF MORAL ISSUES

It would be relevant to know why and how do moral issues (problems) arise in a profession or why do people behave unethically? The reasons for people including the employer and employees, behaving unethically may be classified into three categories:

1.  Resource Crunch

Due to pressure, through time limits, availability of money or budgetary constraints, and technology decay or obsolescence. Pressure from the government to complete the project in time (e.g., before the elections), reduction in the budget because of sudden war or natural calamity (e.g., Tsunami) and obsolescence due technology innovation by the competitor lead to manipulation and unsafe and unethical execution of projects. Involving individuals in the development of goals and values and developing policies that allow for individual diversity, dissent, and input to decision-making will prevent unethical results.

2.  Opportunity

(a) Double standards or behaviour of the employers towards the employees and the public. The unethical behaviours of World Com (in USA), Enron (in USA as well as India) executives in 2002 resulted in bankruptcy for those companies, (b) Management projecting their own interests more than that of their employees. Some organizations over-emphasize short-term gains and results at the expense of themselves and others, (c) Emphasis on results and gains at the expense of the employees, and (d) Management by objectives, without focus on empowerment and improvement of the infrastructure. This is best encountered by developing policies that allow ‘conscience keepers’ and whistle blowers and appointing ombudsman, who can work confidentially with people to solve the unethical problems internally.

3.  Attitude

Poor attitude of the employees set in due to

(a) Low morale of the employees because of dissatisfaction and downsizing,

(b) Absence of grievance redressal mechanism,

(c) Lack of promotion or career development policies or denied promotions,

(d) Lack of transparency,

(e) Absence of recognition and reward system, and

(f) Poor working environments.

Giving ethics training for all, recognizing ethical conduct in work place, including ethics in performance appraisal, and encouraging open discussion on ethical issues, are some of the directions to promote positive attitudes among the employees.

To get firm and positive effect, ethical standards must be set and adopted by the senior management, with input from all personnel.

TYPES OF INQUIRIES

The three types of inquiries, in solving ethical problems are: normative inquiry, conceptual inquiry, and factual or descriptive inquiry.

The three types of inquiries are discussed below to illustrate the differences and preference.

1.  Normative Inquiry

It seeks to identify and justify the morally-desirable norms or standards that should guide individuals and groups. It also has the theoretical goal of justifying particular moral judgments. Normative questions are about what ought to be and what is good, based on moral values. For example,

1. How far does the obligation of engineers to protect public safety extend in any given situation?

2. When, if ever, should engineers be expected to blow whistle on dangerous practices of their employers?

3. Whose values ought to be primary in making judgment about acceptable risks in design for a public transport system or a nuclear plant? Is it of management, senior engineers, government, voters or all of them?

4. When and why is the government justified in interfering with the organisations?

5. What are the reasons on which the engineers show their obligations to their employees or clients or the public?

2.  Conceptual Inquiry

It is directed to clarify the meaning of concepts or ideas or principles that are expressed by words or by questions and statements. For example,

(a) What is meant by safety?

(b) How is it related to risk?

 (c) What is a bribe?

 (d) What is a profession?

When moral concepts are discussed, normative and conceptual issues are closely interconnected.

3.  Factual or Descriptive Inquiry

It is aimed to obtain facts needed for understanding and resolving value issues. Researchers conduct factual inquiries using mathematical or statistical techniques. The inquiry provide important information on business realities, engineering practice, and the effectiveness of professional societies in fostering moral conduct, the procedures used in risk assessment, and psychological profiles of engineers. The facts provide not only the reasons for moral problems but also enable us to develop alternative ways of resolving moral problems. For example,

1. How were the benefits assessed?

2. What are procedures followed in risk assessment?

3. What are short-term and long-term effects of drinking water being polluted?

4. Who conducted the tests on materials?

MORAL DILEMMA

Dilemmas are situations in which moral reasons come into conflict, or in which the application of moral values are  problems, and one is not clear of the immediate choice or solution of the problems. Moral reasons could be rights, duties, goods or obligations. These situations do not mean that things had gone wrong, but they only indicate the presence of moral complexity. This makes the decision making complex. For example, a person promised to meet a friend and dine, but he has to help his uncle who is involved in an accident — one has to fix the priority. There are some difficulties in arriving at the solution to the problems, in dilemma. The three complex situations leading to moral dilemmas are:

 1. The problem of vagueness:  One is unable to distinguish between good and bad (right or wrong) principle. Good means an action that is obligatory. For example, code of ethics specifies that one should obey the laws and follow standards. Refuse bribe or accept the gift, and maintain confidentiality

2. The problem of conflicting reasons: One is unable to choose between two good moral solutions. One has to fix priority, through knowledge or value system.

3. The problem of disagreement: There may be two or more solutions and none of them mandatory. These solutions may be better or worse in some respects but not in all aspects. One has to interpret, apply different morally reasons, and analyse and rank the decisions. Select the best suitable, under the existing and the most probable conditions.

Steps to Solve Dilemma

The logical steps in confronting moral dilemma are:

1. Identification of the moral factors and reasons. The clarity to identify the relevant moral values from among duties, rights, goods and obligations is obtained (conceptual inquiry). The most useful resource in identifying dilemmas in engineering is the professional codes of ethics, as interpreted by the professional experience. Another resource is talking with colleagues who can focus or narrow down the choice of values.

2. Collection of all information, data, and facts (factual inquiry) relevant to the situation.

3. Rank the moral options i.e., priority in application through value system, and also as obligatory, all right, acceptable, not acceptable, damaging, and most damaging etc. For example, in fulfilling responsibility, the codes give prime importance to public safety and protection of the environment, as compared to the individuals or the employers (conceptual inquiry).

4. Generate alternate courses of action to resolve the dilemma. Write down the main options and sub-options as a matrix or decision tree to ensure that all options are included.

5. Discuss with colleagues and obtain their perspectives, priorities, and suggestions on various alternatives.

6. Decide upon a final course of action, based on priority fixed or assumed. If there is no ideal solution, we arrive at a partially satisfactory or ‘satisficing’ solution.

MORAL AUTONOMY

Moral autonomy is defined as, decisions and actions exercised on the basis of moral concern for other people and recognition of good moral reasons. Alternatively, moral autonomy means ‘self-determinant or independent’. The autonomous people hold moral beliefs and attitudes based on their critical reflection rather than on passive adoption of the conventions of the society or profession. Moral autonomy may also be defined as a skill and habit of thinking rationally about the ethical issues, on the basis of moral concern. Viewing engineering as social experimentation will promote autonomous participation and retain one’s professional identity. Periodical performance appraisals, tight-time schedules and fear of foreign competition threatens this autonomy. The attitude of the management should allow latitude in the judgments of their engineers on moral issues. If management views profitability is more important than consistent quality and retention of the customers that discourage the moral autonomy, engineers are compelled to seek the support from their professional societies and outside organizations for moral support. It appears that the blue-collar workers with the support of the union can adopt better autonomy than the employed professionals. Only recently the legal support has been obtained by the professional societies in exhibiting moral autonomy by professionals in this country as well as in the West. The engineering skills related to moral autonomy are listed as follows:

1. Proficiency in recognizing moral problems in engineering and ability to distinguish as well as relate them to problems in law, economics, and religion,

2. Skill in comprehending, clarifying, and critically-assessing arguments on different aspects of moral issues,

3. Ability to form consistent and comprehensive view points based on facts,

4. Awareness of alternate responses to the issues and creative solutions for practical difficulties, 5. Sensitivity to genuine difficulties and subtleties, including willingness to undergo and tolerate some uncertainty while making decisions,

6. Using rational dialogue in resolving moral conflicts and developing tolerance of different perspectives among morally reasonable people, and

7. Maintaining moral integrity.

Autonomy which is the independence in making decisions and actions, is different from authority. Authority provides freedom for action, specified within limits, depending on the situation. Moral autonomy and respect for authority can coexist. They are not against each other. If the authority of the engineer and the moral autonomy of the operator are in conflict, a consensus is obtained by the two, upon discussion and mutual understanding their limits.

KOHLBERG THEORY

Moral development in human being occurs overage and experience. Kohlberg suggested there are three levels of moral development, namely pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional, based on the type of reasoning and motivation of the individuals in response to moral questions.

In the pre-conventional level, right conduct for an individual is regarded as whatever directly benefits oneself. At this level, individuals are motivated by obedience or the desire to avoid punishment or to satisfy their own needs or by the influence by power on them. All young children exhibit this tendency.

 At the conventional level, people respect the law and authority. Rules and norms of one’s family or group or society is accepted, as the standard of morality. Individuals in this level want to please or satisfy, and get approval by others and to meet the expectations of the society, rather than their self-interest (e.g., good boy, good girl). Loyalty is regarded as most important. Many adults do not go beyond this level.

At the post-conventional level, people are called autonomous. They think originally and want to live by universally good principles and welfare of others. They have no self-interest. They live by principled conscience. They follow the golden rule, ‘Do unto others as you would have them do unto you’. They maintain moral integrity, self-respect and respect for others. Kohlberg believed that individuals could only progress through these stages, one stage at a time. He believed that most of the moral development occurs through social interactions.

GILLIGAN’S THEORY

Carol Gilligan found that Kohlberg’s theory had a strong male bias. According to Gilligan’s studies, men had a tendency to solve problems by applying abstract moral principles. Men were found to resolve moral dilemma by choosing the most important moral rule, overriding other rules. In contrast, women gave importance to preserve personal relationships with all the people involved. The context oriented emphasis on maintaining personal relationships was called the ethics of care, in contrast with the ethics of rules and rights adopted by men. Gilligan revised the three levels of moral development of Kohlberg, as stages of growth towards ethics of caring. The pre-conventional level, which is same as that of Kohlberg’s first one, right conduct, is viewed in a selfish manner solely as what is good for oneself. The second level called conventional level, the importance is on not hurting others, and willing to sacrifice one’s own interest and help others. This is the characteristic feature of women. At the post-conventional level, a reasoned balance is found between caring about others and pursuing the self-interest. The balance one’s own need and the needs of others, is aimed while maintaining relationship based on mutual caring. This is achieved by context-oriented reasoning, rather than by hierarchy of rules.

UNIT-1

VALUES

Humans have the unique ability to define their identity, choose their values and establish their beliefs. All three of these directly influence a person’s behaviour. People have gone to great lengths to demonstrate the validity of their beliefs, including war and sacrificing their own life! Conversely, people are not motivated to support or validate the beliefs of another, when those beliefs are contrary to their own.

A value is defined as “a principle that promotes well-being or prevents harm.”

Values are our guidelines for our success—our paradigm about what is acceptable

Personal values are defined as: “Emotional beliefs in principles regarded as particularly favourable or important for the individual.” Our values associate emotions to our experiences and guide our choices, decisions and actions.

Types of Values

The five core human values are as follows:

(1) Right conduct

(2) Peace

(3) Truth

(4) Love

(5) Non- violence.

1. Values related to right conduct are:

(a) Self-help skills: Care of possessions, diet, hygiene, modesty, posture, self-reliance, and tidy appearance.

 (b) Social skills: Good behaviour, good manners, good relationships, helpfulness, No wastage, and good environment, and

(c) Ethical skills: Code of conduct, courage, dependability, duty, efficiency, ingenuity, initiative, perseverance, punctuality, resourcefulness, respect for all, and responsibility.

2. Values related to peace are:

Attention, calmness, concentration, contentment, dignity, discipline, equality, equanimity, faithfulness, focus, gratitude, happiness, harmony, humility, inner silence, optimism, patience, reflection, satisfaction, self-acceptance, self-confidence, self-control, self-discipline, self-esteem, self-respect, sense control, tolerance, and understanding.

3. Values related to truth are:

Accuracy, curiosity, discernment, fairness, fearlessness, honesty, integrity (unity of thought, word, and deed), intuition, justice, optimism, purity, and quest for knowledge, reason, self-analysis, and sincerity, spirit of inquiry, synthesis, trust, truthfulness, and determination.

4. Values related to love are:

Acceptance, affection, care, compassion, consideration, dedication, devotion, empathy, forbearance, forgiveness, friendship, generosity, gentleness, humanness, interdependence, kindness, patience, patriotism, reverence, sacrifice, selflessness, service, sharing, sympathy, thoughtfulness, tolerance and trust.

5. Values related to non-violence are:

(a) PSYCHOLOGICAL: Benevolence, compassion, concern for others, consideration, forbearance, forgiveness, manners, happiness, loyalty, morality, and universal love

(b) SOCIAL: Appreciation of other cultures and religions, brotherhood, care of environment, citizenship, equality, harmlessness, national awareness, perseverance, respect for property, and social justice.

MORALS

Morals are the welfare principles enunciated by the wise people, based on their experience and wisdom. They were edited, changed or modified or evolved to suit the geography of the region, rulers (dynasty), and in accordance with development of knowledge in science and technology and with time.

Morality is concerned with principles and practices of morals such as: (a) what ought or ought not to be done in a given situation? (b) What is right or wrong about the handling of a situation? And (c) What is good or bad about the people, policies, and ideals involved?

Differences between Morality and Ethics

1. More general and prescriptive based on customs and traditions.

    Specific and descriptive. It is a critical reflection on morals.

2. More concerned with the results of wrong action, when done.

    More concerned with the results of a right action, when not done.

3. Thrust is on judgment and punishment, in the name of God or by laws.

    Thrust is on influence, education, training through codes, guidelines, and correction.

4. In case of conflict between the two, morality is given top priority, because the damage is more. It is more common and basic.

    Less serious, hence second priority only. Less common. But relevant today, because of complex interactions in the modern society.

5. Example: Character flaw, corruption, extortion, and crime.

    Example: Notions or beliefs about manners, tastes, customs, and towards laws

ETHICS

Ethics is the word that refers to morals, values, and beliefs of the individuals, family or the society. The word has several meanings. Basically it is an activity and process of inquiry. Secondly, it is different from non-moral problems, when dealing with issues and controversies. Thirdly, ethics refers to a particular set of beliefs, attitudes, and habits of individuals or family or groups concerned with morals. Fourth, it is used to mean ‘morally correct’.

The study on ethics helps to know the people’s beliefs, values, and morals, learn the good and bad of them, and practice them to maximize their well-being and happiness. It involves the inquiry on the existing situations, form judgments and resolve the issues. In addition, ethics tells us how to live, to respond to issues, through the duties, rights, responsibilities, and obligations.

INTEGRITY

Integrity is defined as the unity of thought, word and deed (honesty) and open mindedness. It includes the capacity to communicate the factual information so that others can make well-informed decisions. It yields the person’s ‘peace of mind’, and hence adds strength and consistency in character, decisions, and actions. This paves way to one’s success. It is one of the self-direction virtues. It enthuse people not only to execute a job well but to achieve excellence in performance. It helps them to own the responsibility and earn self-respect and recognition by doing the job.

WORK ETHICS

Industry and Society are the two systems which interact with each other and are interdependent. Society requires industry/business system which provides manufacturing, distribution and consumption activities. It needs investment (capital input), labour (input), supply (raw materials), production (industries, business organizations), marketing and distribution (transport), and consumption (public, customer). A lot of transactions (and interactions) between these sub-systems involving people are needed for the welfare of the society. It is here, the work ethics plays an essential role. Work ethics is defined as a set of attitudes concerned with the value of work, which forms the motivational orientation. The ‘work ethics’ is aimed at ensuring the economy (get job, create wealth, earn salary), productivity (wealth, profit), safety (in workplace), health and hygiene (working conditions), privacy (raise family), security (permanence against contractual, pension, and retirement benefits), cultural and social development (leisure, hobby, and happiness), welfare (social work), environment (anti-pollution activities), and offer opportunities for all, according to their abilities, but without discrimination. To work (job), is not for monetary considerations only. Human beings believe that it is good to work. Work is good for the body and mind. It promotes self-respect, self-esteem, well for the family, and obligation to the society and allow the world to prosper. Work lays a moral and meaningful foundation for life. That is why, work ethics affirms that, the work per se is worthy, admirable and valuable at personal and social levels. It improves the quality of life and makes life purposeful, successful, and happy.

SERVICE LEARNING

Service learning refers to learning the service policies, procedures, norms, and conditions, other than ‘the technical trade practices’. The service learning includes the characteristics of the work, basic requirements, security of the job, and awareness of the procedures, while taking decisions and actions. It helps the individuals to interact ethically with colleagues, to effectively coordinate with other departments, to interact cordially with suppliers as well as the customers, and to maintain all these friendly interactions.

The service learning is a methodology falling under the category of experiential education. It is one of the forms of experiential learning and community service opportunities. It is distinguished in the following ways:

 (a). Connection to curriculum: Integrating the learning into a service project is a key to successful service learning. Academic ties should be clear and built upon existing disciplinary skills.

 (b). Learner’s voice: Beyond being actively engaged in the project, trainees have the opportunity to select, design, implement, and evaluate their service activity.

(c). Reflection: Structured opportunities are created to think, talk, and write about the service experience. The balance of reflection and action allows the trainee to be constantly aware of the impact of their work.

(d). Partners in the community: Partnership with community agencies are used to identify genuine needs, provide mentor ship, and contribute input such as labour and expertise towards completing the project.

VIRTUES

Virtues are positive and preferred values. Virtues are desirable attitudes or character traits, motives and emotions that enable us to be successful and to act in ways that develop our highest potential. They energize and enable us to pursue the ideals that we have adopted. Honesty, courage, compassion, generosity, fidelity, integrity, fairness, transparency, self-control, and prudence are all examples of virtues. Virtues are tendencies which include, solving problems through peaceful and constructive means and follow the path of the golden mean between the extremes of ‘excess and deficiency’. They are like habits, once acquired, they become characteristics of a person. Moreover, a person who has developed virtues will naturally act in ways consistent with moral principles. The virtuous person is the ethical person.

Civic Virtues

Civic virtues are the moral duties and rights, as a citizen of the village or the country or an integral part of the society and environment. An individual may exhibit civic virtues by voting, volunteering, and organizing welfare groups and meetings.

The duties are:

1. To pay taxes to the local government and state, in time.

2. To keep the surroundings clean and green.

3. Not to pollute the water, land, and air by following hygiene and proper garbage disposal. For example, not to burn wood, tyres, plastic materials, spit in the open, even not to smoke in the open, and not to cause nuisance to the public, are some of the civic (duties) virtues.

 4. To follow the road safety rules.

On the other hand, the rights are:

1. To vote the local or state government.

2. To contest in the elections to the local or state government.

3. To seek a public welfare facility such as a school, hospital or a community hall or transport or communication facility, for the residents.

4. To establish a green and safe environment, pollution free, corruption free, and to follow ethical principles. People are said to have the right to breathe in fresh air, by not allowing smoking in public.

1. Civic Knowledge

Citizens must understand what the Constitution says about how the government is working, and what the government is supposed to do and what not to do. We must understand the basis of our responsibilities as citizens, besides duties and rights. We must be able to recognize when the government or another citizen infringes upon our rights. It implies that the government requires the participation of the enlightened citizens, to serve and survive.

2.  Self-Restraint

For citizens to live in a free society with limited government each citizen must be able to control or restrain himself; otherwise, we would need a police state—that is, a dictatorial government to maintain safety and order. He advocated for morality and declared that happiness is achieved and sustained through virtues and morals. He advocated and demonstrated self-restraint several times in his private and public life, and naturally he was a great leader.

3.  Self-Assertion

Self-assertion means that citizens must be proud of their rights, and have the courage to stand up in public and defend their rights. Sometimes, a government may usurp the very rights that it was created to protect. In such cases, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish that government (e.g., voting rights, rights call back).

4.  Self-Reliance

Citizens who cannot provide for themselves will need a large government to take care of them. Once citizens become dependent on government for their basic needs, the people are no longer in a position to demand that government act within the confines of the Constitution. Self-reliant citizens are free citizens in the sense that they are not dependent on others for their basic needs. They do not need a large provider-government, which has the potential to become an oppressive government, to meet those needs.  Only a strong self-reliant citizenry will be able to enjoy fully the blessings of liberty. These civic virtues, applicable to local, state, and central governments, nourish freedom and civil liberty at the root of democracy.

RESPECT FOR OTHERS

This is a basic requirement for nurturing friendship, team work, and for the synergy it promotes and sustains. The principles enunciated in this regard are:

 1. Recognize and accept the existence of other persons as human beings, because they have a right to live, just as you have.

2. Respect others’ ideas (decisions), words, and labour (actions).  One need not accept or approve or award them, but shall listen to them first. One can correct or warn, if they commit mistakes. Some people may wait and watch as fun, if one falls, claiming that they know others’ mistakes before and know that they will fall!  Appreciate colleagues and subordinates on their positive actions.  Criticize constructively and encourage them. They are bound to improve their performance, by learning properly and by putting more efforts.

3. Show ‘goodwill’ on others. Love others. Allow others to grow. Basically, the goodwill reflects on the originator and multiplies itself on everybody.

HONESTY

Honesty is a virtue, and it is exhibited in two aspects namely,

(a) Truthfulness

(b) Trustworthiness.

Truthfulness is to face the responsibilities upon telling truth. One should keep one’s word or promise. By admitting one’s mistake committed (one needs courage to do that!), it is easy to fix them. Reliable engineering judgment, maintenance of truth, defending the truth, and communicating the truth, only when it does ‘good’ to others, are some of the reflections of truthfulness.  But trustworthiness is maintaining integrity and taking responsibility for personal performance.  People abide by law and live by mutual trust. They play the right way to win, according to the laws or rules (legally and morally). They build trust through reliability and authenticity. They admit their own mistakes and confront unethical actions in others and take tough and principled stand, even if unpopular.

Honesty is mirrored in many ways. The common reflections are:

(a) Beliefs (intellectual honesty).

(b) Communication (writing and speech).

(c) Decisions (ideas, discretion).

(d) Actions (means, timing, place, and the goals).

(e) Intended and unintended results achieved.

COURAGE

Courage is the tendency to accept and face risks and difficult tasks in rational ways.  Self-confidence is the basic requirement to nurture courage. Courage is classified into three types, based on the types of risks, namely (a) Physical courage, (b) Social courage, and (c) Intellectual courage. In physical courage, the thrust is on the adequacy of the physical strength, including the muscle power and armaments. People with high adrenaline, may be prepared to face challenges for the mere ‘thrill’ or driven by a decision to ‘excel’. The social courage involves the decisions and actions to change the order, based on the conviction for or against certain social behaviors. This requires leadership abilities, including empathy and sacrifice, to mobilize and motivate the followers, for the social cause. The intellectual courage is inculcated in people through acquired knowledge, experience, games, tactics, education, and training. In professional ethics, courage is applicable to the employers, employees, public, and the press.

COMMITMENT

Commitment means alignment to goals and adherence to ethical principles during the activities. First of all, one must believe in one’s action performed and the expected end results (confidence). It means one should have the conviction without an iota of doubt that one will succeed.  Holding sustained interest and firmness, in whatever ethical means one follows, with the fervent attitude and hope that one will achieve the goals, is commitment. It is the driving force to realize success. This is a basic requirement for any profession.

For example, a design engineer shall exhibit a sense of commitment, to make his product or project designed a beneficial contribution to the society. Only when the teacher is committed to his job, the students will succeed in life and contribute ‘good’ to the society. The commitment of top management will naturally lead to committed employees, whatever may be their position or emoluments. This is bound to add wealth to oneself, one’s employer, society, and the nation at large.

EMPATHY

Empathy is social radar. Sensing what others feel about, without their open talk, is the essence of empathy. Empathy begins with showing concern, and then obtaining and understanding the feelings of others, from others’ point of view. It is also defined as the ability to put one’s self into the psychological frame of reference or point of view of another, to know what the other person feels. It includes the imaginative projection into other’s feelings and understanding of other’s background such as parentage, physical and mental state, economic situation, and association. This is an essential ingredient for good human relations and transactions.

CHALLENGES IN THE WORK PLACE

The biggest workplace challenge is said to be the employee’s work ethics: showing up to work every day (interest in work and attendance), showing up to work on time (punctuality), taking pride in the quality of their work, commitment to the job, and getting along with others. This situation demands inculcation of good character in the workplace by employees.

Ethics and Character

Whilst psychology investigates the growth of different types of character, ethics considers the relative value of such types and the virtues which constitute them. The problem of the true moral ideal is a question of the relative value of different types of character. The effect on the person’s character of a particular form of conduct is a universally accepted as a test of its moral quality. Different systems of ethics emphasize different virtues in constituting the ideal moral character. With the utilitarian, who places the ethical end in the maximum happiness for the whole community, benevolence will form the primary element in the ideal character. For the stoic, fortitude and self-control are the chief excellences. In all conceptions of ideal character, firmness of will, fortitude, constancy in adhering to principle or in pursuit of a noble aim are held important. A man of character is frequently equivalent to being capable of adhering to a fixed purpose. Another essential is the virtue of justice, the recognition of the rights, duties, and claims of others. The richer the culture of the mind, the larger the intellectual horizon, the broader the sympathies, the more will the character approximate to the ideal of human perfection.

Education and Character

The aim of education is not only the cultivation of the intellect but also the formation of moral character. Increased intelligence or physical skill may as easily be employed to the detriment or benefit of the community, if not accompanied by improved will. It is the function of ethics to determine the ideals of human character. The theory and science of education are to study the processes by which that end may be attained.

SPIRITUALITY

Spirituality is a way of living that emphasizes the constant awareness and recognition of the spiritual dimension (mind and its development) of nature and people, with a dynamic balance between the material development and the spiritual development. This is said to be the great virtue of Indian philosophy and for Indians. Sometimes, spirituality includes the faith or belief in supernatural power/ God, regarding the worldly events. It functions as a fertilizer for the soil ‘character’ to blossom into values and morals.

Spirituality includes creativity, communication, recognition of the individual as human being (as opposed to a life-less machine), respect to others, acceptance (stop finding faults with colleagues and accept them the way they are), vision (looking beyond the obvious and not believing anyone blindly), and partnership (not being too authoritative, and always sharing responsibility with others, for better returns).

Spirituality is motivation as it encourages the colleagues to perform better. Remember, lack of motivation leads to isolation.  Spirituality is also energy: Be energetic and flexible to adapt to challenging and changing situations. Spirituality is flexibility as well. One should not be too dominating. Make space for everyone and learn to recognize and accept people the way they are. Variety is the order of the day. But one can influence their mind to think and act together. Spirituality is also fun. Working is okay, but you also need to have fun in office to keep yourself charged up. Tolerance and empathy are the reflections of spirituality. Blue and saffron colors are said to be associated with spirituality.

Spirituality in the Workplace

Building spirituality in the workplace: Spirituality is promoted in the workplace by adhering to the following activities:

1. Verbally respect the individuals as humans and recognize their values in all decisions and actions.

2. Get to know the people with whom you work and know what is important to them. Know their goals, desires, and dreams too.

3. State your personal ethics and your beliefs clearly.

 4. Support causes outside the business.

5. Encourage leaders to use value-based discretion in making decisions.

 6. Demonstrate your own self-knowledge and spirituality in all your actions.

7. Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.

CORPORATE EXCELLENCE

The spiritual traits to be developed for excellence in corporate activities are listed as follows: 1. Self-awareness — Realization of self-potential. A human has immense capability but it needs to be developed.

2. Alertness in observation and quickness in decision making, i.e., spontaneity which includes quick reflexes, no delay but also no hasty decisions.

 3. Being visionary and value based — this includes an attitude towards future of the organization and the society, with clear objectives.

 4. Holism — Whole system or comprehensive views and interconnected with different aspects. Holistic thinking, which means the welfare of the self, family, organization and the society including all other living beings and environment.

5. Compassion — Sympathy, empathy and concern for others. These are essential for not only building the team but also for its effective functioning.

 6. Respect for diversity — it means search for unity in diversity i.e., respect others and their views.

7. Moral Autonomy — it means action based on rational and moral judgment. One need not follow the crowd or majority i.e., band-wagon effect.

8. Creative thinking and constant reasoning — think if we can do something new and if we can improve further?

9. Ability to analyse and synthesize — Refrain from doing something only traditional.

10. Positive views of adversity — Make adversities one’s source of power—a typical Karma yogi’s outlook! Every threat is converted into opportunity.

11. Humility — the attitude to accept criticism (it requires courage!) and willing to correct. It includes modesty and acknowledging the work of colleagues.

12. Sense of vocation — Treat the duty as a service to society, besides your organization.